Essays

Discuss the similarities and differences between Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories in sociology. [25 marks] 2004

Introduction

Sociology is a field of study that attempts to understand human society and social behavior. It is a broad discipline with several theoretical perspectives, two of which are Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories. These two theories attempt to explain social phenomena, but they differ in their assumptions and explanations. This essay discusses the similarities and differences between Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories in sociology.

Similarities between Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories

Both Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories recognize the importance of social structures in shaping society. They acknowledge that institutions, such as the family, government, education, and the economy, play a crucial role in creating and maintaining social order. Additionally, both theories attempt to explain the dynamics of social order and change. They are concerned with how societies maintain stability and the factors that lead to social change.

Differences between Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories

Conflict/Marxist theories focus on social inequality and the struggle for power and resources. They argue that society is divided into classes, and the struggle for power and resources between these classes is the primary cause of social change. Functionalist theories, on the other hand, emphasize social harmony and the maintenance of social order. They argue that society is like a biological organism, with different parts working together to maintain stability and equilibrium.

Conflict/Marxist theories view society as inherently unstable and in constant conflict, while Functionalist theories view society as stable and well-functioning. Conflict/Marxist theories are critical of the status quo and focus on the ways in which society is unequal and oppressive. Functionalist theories, however, are more accepting of the status quo and view social inequality as a necessary component of society.

Examples of Conflict/Marxist and Functionalist theories in action

An example of Conflict/Marxist theory in action is the struggle for workers' rights. Conflict/Marxist theorists argue that workers are oppressed by capitalists who control the means of production and exploit their labor. The workers' struggle for better wages and working conditions is a response to this oppression. An example of Functionalist theory in action is the importance of social norms in maintaining order. Functionalist theorists argue that social norms, such as laws and customs, are necessary for social order and that individuals who violate these norms are punished to maintain social stability.

Criticisms of Conflict/Marxist and Functionalist theories

Critics of Conflict/Marxist theories argue that they oversimplify complex social phenomena and do not pay enough attention to individual agency. Critics of Functionalist theories argue that they fail to account for social inequality and the inability to explain social change adequately.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Conflict/Marxist theories and Functionalist theories are two different theoretical perspectives in sociology. Although they share some similarities, they differ in their assumptions and explanations. Conflict/Marxist theories focus on social inequality and the struggle for power and resources, while Functionalist theories emphasize social harmony and the maintenance of social order. These theories provide a framework for understanding society and social behavior, but they also have their limitations and criticisms. Nonetheless, they remain relevant and continue to shape sociological research and thinking.

Question: It is becoming evidently clear that the family is no longer in the main
agent of socialization in society. Discuss.
Unit & Module: Unit 1 Module 1 - Sociology, Culture & Identity
Year: N/A
Essay:
Socialization is the process of learning the culture of one’s society.
Giddens stated that it is through the process of socialization that people
become members of society, thereby learning acceptable behaviors and
becoming skilled in the ways of their culture. Durkheim believes that
socialization is important as it lets individuals know what is expected of
them and it also constrains behaviour. Maconis (2007) states that
socialization is an important ingredient for personality development. This
can be seen in Davis’ case with Anna and Isabelle, who were isolated
from the rest of society, from birth to age six. Upon being found, they were
unable to speak, unresponsive and incapable of functioning properly.
Socialization thus aids in forming our personalities and also avoids
punishment in society. Socialization first begins with the family. This is
referred to as primary socialization. This essay will discuss the role of the
family in socialization, highlighting the reasons why family is no longer the
main agent of socialization and identifying other agents of socialization.
To begin, the family was essentially the main agent of socialization. They
contribute to primary socialization, which takes place from birth, teaching
individuals the culture of society. In our early life, the family is very
important in shaping our ideas, beliefs, and behaviour. According to Murdock,
the family plays important roles in society. These roles include, socializing
children into the culture of society, reproducing the next generation,
providing the basic needs and aiding in companionship and gratification.
In addition, functionalism sees that the family is a universal social
institution in society that takes care of the needs of society. Hubert
Spencer suggests that society is just like an organism. The organism consists
of different parts, which contribute to equilibrium and the wellbeing of
this organism. Similarly, the family is the “different parts” in society,
that maintain order in society. Each part function to meet Parson’s
functional prerequisites. The integration of the various parts, that is, the
different roles in the family, provides consensus and patterned relationships.
Additionally, although the family is seen as “the cornerstone in
society” and provides the means of primary socialization, there are various
factors contributing to its decline as the main agent. Through primary
socialization, individuals have developed negative attitudes. This is
evident as social issues are usually traced back to the family as the
source. This is because family is portrayed as the “building blocks” of
society. The family has also broken down due to job opportunities. This has
led to mothers, whose traditional role was to socialize the children, now
working and staying longer periods, away from the home. Due to the lack of
the family as the agent of primary socialization, individuals now utilize
other agents as they interact with new groups, thus promoting, secondary
socialization.
Furthermore, solutions for the decline of the family as the main agent includes;
the use of new agents, anticipatory socialization and resocialization. Other
agents of socialization include school, religious institutions, peers, the
media and the community. These agents contribute to secondary socialization,
as the individuals interact with other groups, apart from the family. These
agents also aid in the resocialization of individuals, where they reinforce
the values and beliefs of society. These agents may also play a role in
anticipatory socialization, where individuals deliberately seek help to
socialize them into the expected behaviour. Religious intuitions are an
example of an agent who contributes to anticipatory socialization. However,
it must be noted that just like the family, all agents are flawed. For
example, religious institutions portray certain activities like adultery in a
negative manner to “boost family values”. Therefore, various agents which
are not flawless, aid in secondary and anticipatory socialization, as well as
resocialization of individuals.
To conclude, the family was considered the main agent of socialization.
According to functionalism, the family played numerous roles to ensure the
transmission of values, norms, and beliefs in society, in an attempt to maintain
consensus and stability in society. However, due to numerous factors such as
interactions with new groups, the creation of alternatives and job opportunities,
the family is no longer the main agent, and there are now other agents who
contribute to secondary socialization. These agents include school, religious
institutions, peers, the media and the community. These agents although they
have flaws, also play an important role in the socialization of individuals.

The Caribbean is characterized by matrifocality. Is this a true assessment of  the Caribbean?

This essay was submitted by user: sasa09

General Comments on sasa09 Submitted Essay
•    This essay was well written.
•    The candidate understood the question and interpreted the question satisfactorily.
•    The Candidate referred to the relevant sociological theorists as it relates to the question.
•    Since the question spoke about the Caribbean in general, the candidate used her initative to confine her case study support to one country in this case Jamaica - by citing relevant data relating to the issue (matrifocality). Altogether the essay was coherent.
Suggestions for an enhanced essay:
The candidate could have included data from one or two more other Caribbean territories to drive home the point that matrifocality is prevalent in the Caribbean.
•    In 1997 Mondesire and Dunn noted the percentage of female headed
households in various countries:
Antigua 41.5%, Bahamas 35.8%, Barbados 45.3%, Grenada 42.7%,
Jamaica 38.0% and Trinidad & Tobago 28.1%.

Essay submitted by user Shanique Hayden

General Comments: Writer demonstrated

1. very good understanding of the question

2. very good knowledge of the social issue – matrifocality

3. ability to cite relevant sociological arguments to surrounding the issue

4. ability to clearly express their point of view, using the case studies cited. This was a generally well written essay.

Mark scheme: Knowledge & Understanding - 7

Interpretation & Analysis – 7

Synthesis & Analysis – 7

Total Marks - 21/25

The Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality. Is this a true assessment of the Caribbean?

Matrifocality simply defined means pertaining to, or designating a family unit or structure headed by the mother and lacking a father permanently or for extended periods. A family defined by George Peter Murdock is “a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexually relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults.

The Caribbean region is often characterized by sociologists as one in which the family structure is highly dysfunctional due to the fact that matrifocal families are the most common forms of families throughout the region. The predominance of this family structure has been highlighted in many studies done on the Caribbean. These include those done by Frazier, Herskovits, Elliot Liebow and Oscar Lewis. These studies support the writer’s view that the Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality. Frazier believed that the matrifocal family derived from slavery retentions. He claimed that the way many Caribbean families are formed and structured was as a result of the influences from the days of slavery being retained in the Caribbean. These plantation experiences include the inability of the slave fathers to cohabit with and provide for their children. This was due to the fact that the white plantation owners forbade it and to keep them separated they often sold the males and the males and females lived in different quarters. Due to this practice under slavery, it is Frazier’s view that the males have developed a lazy and reluctant attitude when it comes to being an active member of their families.

Another factor is the fact that many of the slave women had either forced or consensual sexual relations with the white plantation owners. These white men did not claim their children and so the women had to bear the burden of raising the children all alone, and these practices he believes have been carried over into modern societies. Contradicting Frazier’s view is Herskovits. He believes that the Caribbean matrifocal family form, among others is as a result of African cultural retentions brought here by the slaves. These cultural retentions include their sexual relations and family patterns such as polygamy which was reinterpreted in Caribbean to produce progressive monogamy. This type of sexual relationship leads to a man having multiple sexual partners which may lead to multiple children with different women. As a result of this the father is unable to be an active member in the lives of all his children and so has to resort to arrangements such as visiting relationships and in some cases single parent families, usually headed by the female.

Another point highlighted by Herskovits was that in African Polygamist families the women had a certain kind of economic independence and so the men played a marginal role. It was as though the man was not necessary for the family to function effectively. This pattern, he believes, continued and was transmitted to the Caribbean when the slaves came here. So this would account for the marginal roles that men play in the lives of their families in the Caribbean. Elliot Liebow argued that matrifocal families in the Caribbean were due mainly to the economic position of blacks. Liebow sees female headed families resulting from the desertion by the husbands or male figures because he has insufficient funds to play the role of father and breadwinner. Faced with a situation of failure to perform his manly duties, men often desert their families. So he is of the view that the matrifocal families that result thereafter are as a result of low income and not poverty. This is to say that some men do not earn a substantial amount to invest in improving his economic standings. Most times he earns just enough to survive and so has no guarantee of provision should he invest. As a result of this his economic standings may remain the same or deteriorate over time. If this should happen he would be unable to carry out his duties as father and provider for his family. Most men do not want to be faced with this reality and so they abandon the situation by leaving the mother alone to care for the children. On the other hand, there is Oscar Lewis, whose view is contained in the concept of the culture of poverty. He believes that matrifocal families are as a result of poverty and states that Matrifocality has become a part of the subculture of the poor.

Also supporting Lewis’ view is Ulf Hannerz who argues that female-headed families are so common that to some degree they have become an expected and accepted alternative to the standard nuclear family. Therefore matrifocal families can be seen as not only a product of poverty but also of culture. So it is the view of Lewis and Hannerz that due to poverty, the presence of matrifocal families is normal. It is widely accepted in society and as such has become a product of culture. So it can be said that matrifocal families are prevalent in the Caribbean due to the presence of poverty.

To conclude, it can be said that the family structure that dominates the Caribbean is the matrifocal family. This is supported by the works of Frazier, who believes that the matrifocal family is as a result of slavery retentions, Herskovits, who claims that Matrifocality is as a result of African retentions and reinterpretations, Liebow, who is of the belief that Matrifocality is as a result of the economic position of the black men and the combined views of Lewis and Hannerz who both believe that the matrifocal family is as a result of poverty. Due to these studies and the fact that matrifocal families are very dominant in the region, the writer concludes that the assertion that the Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality is a true assessment.

Question: Discuss the relevance of ONE sociological perspective to an understanding of the distribution of educational opportunities in a named Caribbean society. Support your response with reference to any TWO of the following: social class, gender, government policy. Reference can also be made to a relevant empirical study in a named Caribbean society

Unit & Module: Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education Year: 2010 Essay:

Educational opportunities seem to be distributed quite unfairly and unequally, Marxists tend to agree with this. In this essay, the Marxist views on the distribution of educational opportunities with reference to social class and government policy in Jamaica will be discussed. Firstly, it is important to note what Marxists generally contend about educational systems and the opportunities they offer to students. Marxists believe that education is a mechanism for social control and seeks to create laborers for capitalists. The students they aim to make laborers are usually of the lower class. They are certain that the system to meritocracy is an illusion and only seeks to alienate its students. Secondly, when considering the social class of persons seeking education, there is clearly some unequal distribution of educational opportunities in Jamaica. Students are often banned together by their social class or position in society and given educational opportunities that do not point them towards their absolute best but rather to jobs that suit the capitalists in society. An example of this is would be teaching lower-class students vocational training rather than engaging them in classes that are geared towards academics. Also with the banding of students, Marxists believe that the educational system socializes students into accepting their positions in society and does not attempt to provide them with educational opportunities that would lead to good jobs in the future that would allow them social mobility. With the educational system pushing its students of the low social class towards vocational training, they consequently ignore any special talents those students may have. There is also an unequal distribution of educational opportunities because of government policies. National scholarships funded by the government often come in small numbers. Rewards like these are utilized to motivate students but tend to alienate them in preparation to be further alienated in the workplace. Also, with some government-funded scholarships, they are large qualifications that are hard to meet. Marxists argue, unlike functionalists, that the educational system is in fact not meritocratic as it claims to be. Also in countries like Jamaica where secondary schools are not funded by the government, it restricts any future social mobility for students who cannot afford the tuition. Secondary school education is highly valued in the Caribbean and is a stepping stone to college or university which their degrees or certifications are necessary for acquiring a job. Therefore lacking these things prevents students from moving up the social ladder and further cement the view of Marxists that the educational system aims to teach students conformity to unequal educational opportunities. In conclusion, contrary to the beliefs of Functionalists theorists, equality of educational opportunity is indeed an illusion. Factors like social class and government policies do play a significant role in how a student is socialized in the educational system and how they make it out. Marxists are of the firm view that the system’s desires are to make students “comfortable” with the unequal distribution of educational opportunities as well as to use them to create an efficient labor force for the capitalists in society.

What are the most significant processes that have affected change in the West Indian stratification system over the past two centuries?

Over the last two centuries, the West Indian stratification system has experienced significant changes that resulted from numerous factors. Though the social structure of the Caribbean has been greatly influenced by the impact of colonialism and its accompanying influences, the writer wishes to discuss the factors the most significant factors that have effected change in the West Indian stratification system.
According to M.G. Smith "societies in the Caribbean such as Trinidad, Guyana and Jamaica had had a closed system of stratification". In a closed system of stratification, social status and position was strictly defined and ascribed at birth, there was strictly no social mobility since this was a rigid system with clearly demarcated boundaries. This closed system of stratification was quite prominent during the days of slavery and indentureship in the Caribbean.

Over the years, the social structure in the Caribbean has undergone significant transformation. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is evident that the social structure has moved from one that was closed to one that is open. In open societies, there are opportunities for social mobility,social status can be achieved through an individual's efforts. Thus,membership within certain social spheres are dependent upon factors that individuals can control.

Several factors have accounted for the change of the Caribbean's social structure from being closed to open. Selwyn Ryan asserted that the major vehicles for the transformation of the Caribbean social structure has been political independence, transformation of the economy,education and the creation of new wealth. The emergence of self governance,policies and strategies were initiated to ensure that large numbers of the population were given equal opportunities to experience social mobility and a higher standard of living.

Gender policies have become an important part of the political culture in the Caribbean , which has served to change the social structure of Caribbean states. Increasingly women have successfully been integrated into the public domain, excelling in the field of education, business,fashion, interior decoration , politics and several other fields of endeavour from which traditionally they had been restricted to participate in at all levels of society. Miller asserts that "women have been advancing their social positions through education in all levels". Thus, women have attained significant upward social mobility, over the last two centuries. Further still Miller noted that female upward social mobility has also emerged into a social phenomena known as the feminization of professions, since "the enrollment at the teacher's colleges reflects a reversal of the male dominance".

Although the Caribbean enjoys an open stratification system in the contemporary period, it is worthy to note that its colonial history with the implementation of plantation slavery (an extreme and violent version of the European traditional estate system), created a new unfree society in which social mobility was unknown, status was ascribed based on ethnic, phenotypic and economic factors. The unfree lacked opportunities for upward social mobility. The different ethnic groups inhabited the same geographical space, but lived in mutual hostility towards one another. M.G . Smith surmised that sugar plantations caused a great shift in the stratification system, in which race colour and socio - economic status were linked together in a caste-like system.

In conclusion, the stratification system has moved from one that was primarily a closed system to an open system of stratification. Self governance has led to the adoption of policies and strategies to ensure that the majority of the population were given equal opportunities to experience social mobility and a higher standard of living. Gender changes have also given rise to the upward social mobility of women at all levels. All of these changes have been the result of political independence, the transformation of the economy, the availability of education and the creation of wealth as succinctly stated by Selwyn Ryan.

Fertility control has been a topic of great debate in the Caribbean for many years. Some argue that fertility control is the key to development in the region, while others believe that it is not the only factor necessary for development. In this essay, we will discuss this statement and make reference to specific countries in the Caribbean, using population theories such as Malthusian theory, demographic transition theory, and Rostow's economic stages of development to support our arguments.

The Caribbean is a diverse region, with many different cultures, languages, and religions. However, one thing that is common among all the countries in the region is the high fertility rates. According to the World Bank, the fertility rate in the Caribbean is 2.1, which is higher than the world average of 1.8. This high fertility rate has been a concern for many regional policymakers, who believe it is hindering development.

The Malthusian theory is a population theory that argues that population growth will outstrip the earth's resources, leading to poverty and famine. In the Caribbean, Malthusian theory has been used to argue that the high fertility rates in the region are leading to poverty and underdevelopment. However, this theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to poverty and underdevelopment.

Demographic transition theory, on the other hand, argues that as a country develops, its fertility rates will decline. This theory has been used to argue that fertility control is the key to development in the Caribbean. Countries like Barbados have successfully reduced fertility rates through family planning programs, leading to economic growth and development. However, this theory has also been criticized for its lack of attention to the cultural and social factors that influence fertility rates.

Rostow's economic stages of development is another theory that has been used to support the argument that fertility control is the key to development in the Caribbean. This theory argues that countries go through different stages of economic development and that fertility control is necessary for a country to move from the traditional stage to the takeoff stage. However, this theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to the historical and cultural factors that influence economic development.

When we look at specific countries in the Caribbean, we can see that there is a great deal of variation in fertility rates and development. For example, Barbados has a low fertility rate and is considered to be a developed country, while Haiti has a high fertility rate and is considered to be an underdeveloped country. Barbados has achieved this development through a combination of factors, including fertility control, while Haiti has struggled with poverty and underdevelopment due to a lack of access to resources and political instability.

In conclusion, while fertility control may be an important factor in development in the Caribbean, it is not the only factor. Population theories such as Malthusian theory, demographic transition theory, and Rostow's economic stages of development can provide useful insights into the relationship between fertility control and development, but they must be considered in the context of the social, cultural, and political factors that influence development in the region. As such, future research and development in the Caribbean must take a comprehensive approach that addresses these factors.

Examine how the Demographic Transition Model may be applied to a named Caribbean society [25 marks]

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the Demographic Transition Model

B. Brief overview of the chosen Caribbean society

C. Thesis statement: This essay will examine how the Demographic Transition Model can be applied to [name of Caribbean society].

II. Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 1

B. Application of Stage 1 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 1 in the society

III. Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 2

B. Application of Stage 2 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 2 in the society

IV. Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 3

B. Application of Stage 3 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 3 in the society

V. Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 4

B. Application of Stage 4 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 4 in the society

VI. Criticisms and limitations of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Overview of criticisms and limitations

B. Evaluation of the applicability of the model to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Discussion of alternative models or theories that may be more applicable

VII. Conclusion

A. Summary of key points

B. Final evaluation of the applicability of the Demographic Transition Model to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Suggestions for future research

This essay plan provides a structured approach to answering the question and ensures that all key points are covered. By using the Demographic Transition Model as the framework for the analysis, the essay will be able to provide a comprehensive understanding of the demographic patterns in the chosen Caribbean society. The essay will also evaluate the limitations of the model and suggest alternative models or theories that may be more applicable.

 ESSAY

Assess the extent to which the Malthusian theory of population can be applied to a named Caribbean territory. 

Malthus’ theory of population involves the relationship between population growth and food supply. It observes that the world’s population tends to increase more rapidly than the food supply that is needed to sustain it. Malthus argued that population would increase exponentially (for example; 2, 4, 8,16), while food supply would increase arithmetically (for example; 2, 3, 4, 5); where population growth outnumbers food supply available. He claims that the population would continue to grow naturally until there was not enough food, in which case some of them would starve, move on to find a new place with food, or die due to malnutrition and weakened immune systems. This theory, however, cannot be applied to Caribbean territories as from a historical perspective; population trends are different to those described by Malthus as well as the availability of food supply. The territory of Trinidad highlights this argument effectively.
        The pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Caribbean region migrated throughout the Antilles chain from South America, settling and warring in their struggle for survival and livelihood. These Amerindian peoples constituted the Caribbean’s only indigenous culture with the region’s appropriate insular geography, tropical climate and suitable soils; ideal for production of exotic , highly profitable crops like coffee, tobacco and sugar in the later sixteenth century.  Besides hunting, gathering wild fruits and nuts and fishing, the indigenous peoples also planted small gardens for other sources of food, using a sustainable farming method called shifting cultivation. The availability of food and its abundance in the pre-Columbian era contradicts the Malthusian theory as there was enough to supply the inhabitants of the land for a prolonged period.
      The advent of Columbus in the New World, arriving in Trinidad on July 31st, 1498, set in motion a series of momentous events affecting the population trends of this territory even to this day. The indigenes were decimated, commonly by enslavement, deportation and disease after the region’s ‘discovery’ by Europeans. The mass depopulation of the indigenes led to a search for a new source of labour via the ‘Cedula de poblacion’. This renewed attempt to encourage settlement in Trinidad was eminently successful and was the means that put Trinidad firmly on the road to development. When proclaimed in 1783, the island’s population was just about 3,000; exclusive of the Amerindians. A decade later, more than 10,000 settlers came in. The steady flow of immigrants to Trinidad continued and when the French Revolution broke out in 1789, the turmoil in the French islands caused further waves of people to flee to Trinidad. By the time of the British occupation in 1797, the population had reached 18,000, with a mass extinction of the Amerindians. Here we note that the mass increase in the population does not relate to the Malthusian perspective as Malthus argues that the growth in population is due to natural increase. However, during this era, the main reason of population growth was as a result of migration. The mass decrease in population is also contradictory to Malthus’ theory as the bulk decrease in Amerindian population was due to the harsh conditions faced after the arrival of the Europeans. It had no relation to the unavailability of food supply. Contrastedly, during the same period, we note the continued mass decline in the indigenous population; this decrease due to harsh labour conditions, depression, suicide and murder at the hands of the Europeans, is what Malthusreferred to as ‘positive’ checks on the population. In this regard, Malthus’ theory most aptly explains the reason for population change in Trinidad with respect to the decimation of the indigenous population.
        This argument to prove The inapplicability of the The applicability of the Malthusian Theory to the Caribbean is  can be further reinforced  tested, when considering Chattel Slavery in Trinidad. Due to a  The continued search of  for labour after the extermination of the indigenous peoples, there was an  resulted in the introduction of forced migration of enslaved Africans into the island. An estimated eight to fifteen million Africans reached the Americas from the sixteenth through the nineteenth century. Only the youngest and healthiest people were taken for what was called the middle passage of the triangle trade, partly because they would be worth more in America, and partly because they were the most likely to reach their destination alive. Mortality was very high for the majority of this period in all the Caribbean and fertility was very low, so that there was often a natural decrease in population. The high rate of mortality resulted from the high incidence of disease associated with the unhealthy conditions still existing in the area, on the one hand, and the harsh conditions of work and poor sanitation, medical facilities and nutrition on the other. Fertility was very low because of the low ratio of females to males in the immigrant populations and the fact that child bearing was not economically beneficial for the plantations. Here we take note that food supply was not accountable for the upsurge and decline in population.
        After Emancipation, there was a large scale immigration movement of indentured workers from India. It would have been meaningless at that time to seek in building an adequate labour supply on plantations through natural increase of the population, since natural increase is a slow and expensive process, while what was needed was a quick and cheap supply of labour. Population growth was, therefore, largely synonymous with immigration. The planters had a rationing of food to supply to the slaves and indentured labourers. However, during their time of economic crisis, they allowed them to have provision grounds so that they would not have to be their source of food supply. The planters ensured that their workers were adequately fed since they were the means of capital; they wanted the maximum output in food production. Here again we note that there was not a shortage of food since the slaves and indentured servants were allowed to have agriculture of their own- rice cultivation was carried out by the East Indians.
       According to Jack Harewood, during the period 1880-1920, the determinant of population policy was still the need for a large labour supply on the part of the plantations; hence the continuation of indentured immigration in Trinidad. This phase is particularly significant in Caribbean population history, because it marks the first period in which there was a large scale net emigration from the region. Also, for the first time, with partial exception of intra-Caribbean migration, a significant population movement was taking place not as a result of population policy or inadequate food supply and malnutrition, but on the basis of voluntary decisions on the part of individuals seeking their own self-interest. This emigration was partly in response to depressed economic conditions in most of the Caribbean territories, and partly in response to opportunities for large scale emigration to North Central America and to less densely populated territories of the Caribbean.
      In the early twentieth century, Trinidad and Tobago gained their independence. This nation was one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, refining Middle Eastern oil and providing its own through offshore fields. With the opening of a U.S. naval base on Trinidad in 1940, a number of local inhabitants joined or provided services to the American military.  There was an influx of immigrants in the post-Independent era, however, exact immigration figures are difficult to determine.
     In the contemporary period, the population of Trinidad and Tobago obtained from the 2000 Population and Housing Census consists of approximately 1,262,366 persons, up from 1,213,733 persons in 1990. This new count is in keeping with the trends of population change for Trinidad and Tobago, which has shown an increase at each census from 1851. The census survival ratios indicated that in-migration into the country was relatively insignificant, and was said to have counter-balanced out-migration. The Trinidad and Tobago population increased by 4.01 percent between 1990 and 2000 which is about one third of the increase occurring in the previous decade between 1980 and 1990 which was 12.4 percent. This increase in population shows that the Malthusian theory, which claimed to foresee a decrease due to lack of food availability, proves the Malthusian theory as void.
     For most countries, migration has been for much of the time an important component of population growth-from the pre-Columbian to the post-Independent era. Indeed, G.W Roberts sees the history of the Caribbean populations as ‘dominated by a series of currents of external migration’. Over an extended period of two and a half centuries, all the European countriesinvolved brought in people from wherever they could be best obtained-from Europe, Africa, Asia- and under whatever terms they could most economically be obtained- slavery, indenture and free labour. Here we see that Demographic Transition Theory can be deemed as ‘more applicable’ to the Caribbean than the Malthusian perspective as there was evidence of different population trends due to causes such as mortality and fertility. The statement is therefore reiterated that the Malthusian theory is neither appropriate nor applicable when identifying Caribbean territories; especially from a historical approach.

Notes:

Grader's Comments

This was a very good essay. Well written! The student demonstrates very good understanding of the theories under examination. Interpreted the question well, used present day example appropriately to justify and support theoretical argument. Concluded well by stating both theories should be considered for their merits and demerits.

Essay submitted by user : socaman19

Grade Profile

Knowledge & Understanding - 8/10

Interpretation & Analysis - 8/10

Synthesis & Evaluation – 7/10

Total 23/30

N.B.

Avoid using reproachful language, in your essay writing. Do not take a personal tone. (Dispicable) is not an appropriate word to use, in academic writing!

Critically assess the demographic perspectives of Karl Marx and Thomas Malthus with respect to population growth.

    As we venture further into the 21st Century, the global population seems 
to be growing at an alarming rate. By 2030, the world is to be home of an 
estimated 8.3 billion, as compared to 6.12 billion just 30 years prior. (UN, 
2008) Issues such as sustainable agricultural and economic practices are 
gaining increased attention as our leaders prepare to face a ‘population 
explosion’. Thus the inevitable question is asked: Can we as a human race 
survive it? In this essay, we will seek to answer this question, focusing 
intently on two of the most influential theories in this subject: those of 
Thomas Malthus and Karl Marx. Through in-depth analysis of these ideologies, 
we will examine the demographic phenomena that are occurring, in the attempt 
to greater comprehend what is occurring around us.
           Firstly, in his essay on The Principle of Population (1798), 
Malthus presented a startling
Idea. He theorized that populations grew exponentially (i.e. 2, 4, 8 etc.), 
whilst food supply grew arithmetically (i.e. 1, 2, 3 etc.). This idea, dubbed 
the ‘Malthusian Equation’, was seen as proof that the world population 
would inevitably outstrip food supply. The result, he believed, would be 
human anarchy. The population would thus be dramatically reduced, as many 
(the majority being the poor) would die of starvation. Support for this is 
found in Calcutta, India, which has witnessed unbridled population growth. In 
the streets of the city, which are notorious for being the dirtiest and most 
densely populated in the world, thousands starve to death. (Mustapha, 2006)
     Thus, this is the Malthusian Problem: How can human misery be averted? In 
order to combat this imminent demise of the human race, Malthus suggested 
preventative and positive checks. Preventative checks refer the decrease in 
birth rates through abstinence and chastity whilst positive checks refer to 
the increase in death rates through war, famine etc. He was particularly 
critical of the poor, who he saw as a thorn in the side of society. He was a 
strong advocator of the abolition of the ‘Poor Laws’, a welfare system, 
which he believed encouraged the poor to reproduce themselves. He saw no 
reason to pay the poor, as they would not be able to ameliorate their 
position and would continue to be a ‘parasite’ on society. Instead, he 
advocated that the money be given to the upper classes, so that they could 
contribute to ‘high’ society: the arts, science etc. In his view, the 
rich had been ‘naturally selected’ to rule the Earth and carry on a 
strong and rich legacy. In the words of Herbert Spencer, this was ‘survival 
of the fittest’.
    In critiquing Malthus’ theory, we must first look at the ethical side of 
it. Firstly, his support of the abolition of the Poor Laws and the 
abandonment of the poor is somewhat despicable, especially in contemporary 
times. Moreover, some argue that his argument is fundamentally flawed, as it 
has been proven that when social conditions are optimum, and the people are 
happy, population growth subsides significantly. For example, in Barbados, 
the relatively high levels of living and social services, such as education 
and health, have contributed to a minute annual population growth of 0.3%. 
(UNDP, 2008) Contrastingly, Niger, a country where there is a high incidence 
of poverty and inhumane conditions, the population is expected to grow by 
3.6% between 2002 and 2015. (UNDP, 2008). Furthermore, the lifeboat earth 
view presupposes that international aid will come to the rescue of the poor 
countries, and not watch with indifference as Malthus theorises.
    Karl Marx’ take on demographics, like most of his other sociological 
theories, is founded on basic economic principles. He agrees with Malthus on 
one point only: that the population is increasing at a startling rate. 
However, he completely challenges all the other tenets of the Englishman’s 
theory. Perhaps Marx’ most robust criticism of Malthus’ theory is the 
latter’s opinion that the poor are culpable for the global demise. Marx 
states that it is not the poor who should be blamed for the population surge, 
but the rich. He believes that in an effort to accumulate and expand capital 
growth, the rich rely heavily on the poor to reproduce themselves. This is 
because when there is a large labour force but a scarcity of jobs, the 
worker, in his desperation for employment, will work for anything. Thus, the 
capitalists are able to keep wages very low and a ‘reserve army of 
labour’ is engendered, who will work at anytime for anything. The 
bourgeoisie brainwash the proletariat into thinking that large families will 
result in greater chances of employment, and as a result, population sees a 
marked expansion. Therefore, in Marx’ eyes, Malthus’ theory is the 
capitalist’s attempt to reify social phenomena and blame the poor for 
something that is not their fault.
    Marx’ theory, like Malthus, has its strengths and its faults. He is 
right in theorizing the existence of the ‘reserve army of labour’, as 
there are many in the developing countries of the world. For example, the 
many multinational companies (MNC’S) and transnational companies (TNC’s) 
that have established themselves in poor countries such as Vietnam and Mexico 
are exploiting the workforce in order to maximize profits. In Mexico, for 
example, people as young as 12 years work in the ‘maquilas’ (sweatshops), 
where they work 12-hour shifts and are paid between $30 and $50 a week. (New 
Industrialist, 1998). Thus, we see how the rich take advantage of the poor, 
even up to today. However, Marx’ theory has been criticised for being too 
“economically deterministic”. Whilst economics is an important factor in 
population growth, there are many other issues that must be looked at. 
Pressing matters such as sustainable agricultural methods, education of women 
and cultural change must all be dealt with if one seeks to truly combat 
population growth. Some Neo-Marxists focus on these issues, in the attempt to 
modernize traditional conflict thought.
    In closing, both the Malthusian and Marxist theories on demographics have 
their strengths and weaknesses. We see tenets of their ideas coming through 
in all aspects of our modern society. However, to apply one only to our 
current situation is a flawed approach, as we much combine the best elements 
of the two. We must also adopt various ideas from other demographic 
perspectives, such as the Demographic Transition Theory and Neo-Malthusian 
thought. A combination of them will allow us to better understand what is 
happening around us and give us the insight to plan sensibly for the future.

Using Merton's Strain Theory, assess the view that increased pressure for individuals to achieve in Caribbean societies contributes to the increasing growth of crime and deviance, in these territories.

Within the past few, years, we in the Caribbean region have witnessed an 
augmentation in crime rates. Crime, defined as any act that contravenes the 
laws of the land, has spiralled in many islands and shows no signs of abating. 
Many sociologists, in their research in crime and deviance, have attempted to 
explain why crime seems to be increasing on a global scale. One such 
theorist, Robert Merton, presented the Strain Theory, which many later 
researchers based their work on. The theory has been proven to be relevant to 
many societies, but its application to the Caribbean is yet to be tested. 
Thus, in this essay, this theory will be analysed, in the attempt to 
determine whether ‘it holds water’ in our region.
     Merton’s theory centres around the view that as societies modernize and 
begin to gain capital, there are some who will be left behind. As society’s 
norms and values become institutionalized, there will be a group of 
individuals who will be unable to achieve these goals, due to their lack of 
the means to do so. Thus, from this ‘strain’ that the incongruence 
between the goals of mainstream society and the means of achieving them, 
Merton posits that a state of ‘anomie’ or ‘normlessness’ is 
engendered. He further goes on to say that individuals react differently to 
this, responding in one of the following ways: conformity, innovation, 
ritualism, retreatism and rebellion. These reactions will now be discussed 
with reference to the Caribbean.
    Firstly, it is an undeniable fact that in the Caribbean, as islands 
develop economically, the social development seems to lag behind. Thus, there 
often is a small group of individuals who hold the wealth, whilst the 
majority live in destitution. These individuals, who are often from the 
working class, who are, for the most part, uneducated, poor, unemployed and 
socially marginalized, turn to crime to relieve their situation. In Jamaica, 
for example, where there is a large poor urban population, crime rates seem 
to be spiralling out of control. In 2003, 14.8% of the population lived below 
the poverty line, as well as 2,426 burglaries and 2,331 robberies. (CIA 
Factbook). Furthermore, in Haiti, where only the well-to-do can afford to 
live a relatively healthy lifestyle, we note the high crime rate. The 
country’s literacy rate, 52.9%, is the lowest in the region and it is 
estimated that 67% of the population are irregularly or not employed. (CIA 
Factbook) Are the criminals in these countries, as Merton suggests, being 
innovative in their attempts to achieve society’s norms? Pryce (1976) 
thinks so. In his essay, Towards as Caribbean Criminology, he posits that as 
regional society industrialises and becomes more materialistic, the number of 
property thefts will skyrocket, as the poor will need some way to accumulate 
possessions which society holds dear. This has been exhibited in the 
more-developed countries of our region. In McElroy’s and Roccanti’s 2005 
study on crime in the Caribbean, for example, one of the major conclusions 
was that there was a major link between increased tourist arrivals and 
increased crime. They found that the “influx of affluent carefree 
visitors” was a cause for over 33% of all recorded theft. The unemployed, 
poor locals discovered the ease with which one could steal from those who 
were unfamiliar with their surroundings. Thus, we see that Merton’s theory 
seems to aptly explain the reasons for the increase in working class crime 
and bridges the gap between tourism and crime.
    Additionally, we must realise that the region is an anomaly in terms of our 
historical and present situation. Our history of colonialism and oppression 
has created a society replete with racial and class discrimination. The other 
races have always seen blacks in the Caribbean as the ‘evil ones’, the 
individuals who are innately mischievous. Lowenthal (1976) states, 
“Lower-class blacks charged with an offence are assumed to be lying…only 
white people don’t lie” This discrimination manifests itself in almost 
every area of society. From an economic standpoint, whites own the majority 
of the capital, adopt nepotistic patterns of employment regarding senior 
positions and underpay and under-employ blacks. For instance, in Martinique, 
in 1960, the békés (Creole whites) held approximately two-thirds of the 
country’s invested capital. (Hillman and D’Agostino, 2003). Hence, we see 
that blacks have been, and continue to be subjected to oppression in the form 
of discriminatory practices in the region. Perhaps working-class crime in 
some countries is not only a response to the ‘strain’ as Merton suggests, 
but also a desperate plea for social conditions to be ameliorated.
    Additionally, the atrocities that repatriated criminals bring may have 
contributed to the increased crime rates in the Caribbean. In recent years, 
the US and Canadian governments have implemented tough anti-crime and 
anti-terrorism laws into their statutes to reduce the incidence of crime on 
their shores. As a result, between 1993 and 1999, the Caribbean, particularly 
Haiti, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, saw 34,411 individuals, 71% of 
whom had committed criminal offences, deported from the United States. 
(Nurse, 2004) Regional governments have long contended that these individuals 
introduce their foreign-learned deviant expertise and skills such as 
kidnapping and immigrant smuggling into the Caribbean. They no longer have 
any familial roots in the region and therefore have no moral compass or 
“support mechanisms” to reintroduce them into society.  (Nurse, 2004)
     However, working class crimes are not the only categories on deviance on 
the rise. We must be cognisant of the incidence of white-collar crime in the 
region. Whilst this type of deviance has gone unnoticed (or ignored) for many 
years, it is now coming to light. We are now home to a blossoming illicit 
drug trade industry, as well as a haven for fraudulent professional 
behaviour. The laundering of money in the islands’ offshore banking sector 
makes a valued $60 million is made annually! (McElroy and Roccanti, 2005) One 
of the more recent examples of this crime is the recent jailing of eminent 
financier, Sir Allen Stanford. The Stanford International Bank, based in 
Antigua, was recently discovered to be the home of approximately $7.2 billion 
in Mexican drug money. (BBC) Whilst this sounds very alarming, it is not an 
isolated case. It is estimated that narcotic traffickers earn US $150 million 
annually by shipping cocaine through Guyana. (US Embassy, 2006) McElroy 
(2005) reports that the drug trade is valued around $5 billion. This figure 
surpasses what all the merchandise exports of the region are valued at, as 
well as belittles the revenue earned from tourism of all the islands except 
Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico. The Caribbean now appears to be 
a haven for money launderers, hardcore drug traffickers and other 
white-collar offenders.
    However, when one asks why this type of crime is on the increase, 
Merton’s theory comes up short. This is perhaps the biggest shortfall of 
the ideology: it does not account for middle and upper-class offenders. For 
all intents and purposes, they possess the means to acquire society’s goals 
already; there is no real need for them to deviate in order to get what they 
already have. Thus, one must adopt other theories, such as those of Marxists 
and Neo-Marxists in order to effectively explain why the rich seem to be so 
intent on capital expansion at any cost.
    In closing, we see that Merton’s strain theory is only partially 
relevant to the Caribbean experience. It helps greatly in the explanation of 
working-class crime and deviance, as it makes the link between the increased 
pressure of society on individuals to succeed and the spiralling crime rate. 
However, it does not account for the recent growth in white-collar crime such 
as drug trafficking and money laundering. Thus, as Pryce suggests, to treat a 
foreign theory as a ‘blanket’ idea for the Caribbean is incorrect. We 
must adopt a unique, Caribbean criminology that incorporates previous 
theories, as well as new ones born in the region, in order to fully 
comprehend what is happening in our region. Our history of colonialism and 
our future of acute social inequalities need to be studied by local 
intellectuals, rather than those from away who do not truly know the 
Caribbean.

Introduction:

Crime is a pervasive issue that has plagued societies worldwide for centuries. Throughout history, official statistics have shown that males are more likely to commit crimes than females. However, in recent years, the role of women in the Caribbean has been changing. This essay aims to explore the statement that males are more likely to commit crimes than females in light of the changing role of women in the Caribbean. This essay will use sociological theories of crime to support arguments and reference current case studies of crime rates in the Caribbean up to 2021.

Official statistics are important indicators of crime rates in society. However, the accuracy and reliability of these statistics can be problematic. The under-reporting of crimes, particularly gender-based crimes, can skew official statistics. This is especially true in the Caribbean, where cultural attitudes towards gender roles and sexuality can impact crime reporting. Nevertheless, official statistics have consistently shown that males are more likely to commit crimes than females in the Caribbean.

Sociological theories of crime, such as Merton's strain theory and Bandura's social learning theory, provide insight into the gendered nature of crime in the Caribbean. Strain theory posits that social structures that promote the pursuit of wealth and success create stress and strain on individuals, which can lead to criminal behaviour. Social learning theory, on the other hand, argues that individuals learn criminal behaviour through exposure to criminal role models and reinforcement of criminal behaviour. Both theories suggest that male socialization and gender roles contribute to the gendered nature of crime in the Caribbean.

The changing role of women in the Caribbean has had a significant impact on crime rates. Women's increased participation in the workforce and political sphere may have reduced their involvement in criminal activities. The Caribbean Development Bank reported that women's labour force participation rate in the Caribbean increased from 51.3% in 1990 to 57.3% in 2018. Additionally, the number of women in political office in the Caribbean has also increased, with several countries electing their first female Prime Ministers in recent years. The intersectionality of gender with other social factors, such as race and class, also impacts crime rates in the Caribbean. For example, Afro-Caribbean males have been disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system. This is due, in part, to structural inequalities that limit their access to education and employment opportunities. Similarly, low-income individuals are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour due to economic pressures and lack of access to resources.

In conclusion, the changing role of women in the Caribbean has had a significant impact on the gendered nature of the crime. Sociological theories of crime suggest that male socialization and gender roles contribute to the higher rates of crime committed by males. However, the increasing participation of women in the workforce and political sphere may be changing this dynamic. The intersectionality of gender with other social factors also impacts crime rates in the Caribbean, and policymakers must consider these factors when addressing crime in the region. Future research should continue to examine the role of gender in crime in the Caribbean to inform policy and intervention strategies.

ESSAY: 

Crime and deviance are complex social phenomena that have been the subject of study in the field of sociology for many years. Functionalist sociologists argue that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values. However, this notion may not fully explain the complexities of crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as evidenced by the high crime rates in Trinidad and Haiti. This essay will critically assess the applicability of the notion that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean.

Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the importance of social order and stability in society. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as functional for society because they help to reinforce social norms and values and provide an opportunity for social control. For example, the punishment of criminals serves as a deterrent to others who may be considering committing crimes. However, this perspective fails to fully explain the high crime rates in Trinidad and Haiti, which are among the highest in the world.

 The conflict perspective is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power dynamics and social inequality in shaping social structures and processes. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as a result of social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. For example, poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education and healthcare can lead to criminal behaviour. However, this perspective also has limitations in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as it does not account for the role of cultural factors.

Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the importance of how crime and deviance are socially constructed and perpetuated through social interactions and meanings. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as subjective and relative to social norms and values. For example, behaviours that are considered deviant in one society may be considered acceptable in another. However, this perspective may also have limitations in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as it does not account for the structural factors that contribute to high crime rates.

 The Caribbean's complex history and cultural context may influence crime and deviance. For example, the legacy of colonialism and slavery has contributed to social inequality and the marginalization of certain groups, which may lead to criminal behaviour. Additionally, cultural values such as machismo and the glorification of violence may also contribute to high crime rates. However, using a universal theoretical framework to explain crime and deviance in the Caribbean may have limitations, as each society is unique and may require a specific analysis.

 The latest crime statistics from Trinidad and Haiti reveal alarmingly high rates of crime and violence. In Trinidad, there were 538 murders in 2021, while in Haiti, there were 1,105 homicides in 2020. Factors contributing to these high crime rates include gang activity, the proliferation of illegal firearms in both countries and more particularly, political instability- in Haiti. The theories discussed in sections II, III, and IV can offer some explanations for these high crime rates, but none fully account for all the complex factors at play.

In conclusion, while the notion that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values has some validity, it may not fully explain the complexities of crime and deviance in the Caribbean, particularly in Trinidad and Haiti. The functionalist perspective fails to fully account for the high crime rates, while the conflict and interactionist perspectives may not fully account for the cultural and historical factors at play. A specific analysis that takes into account the unique context of each society may be necessary to fully understand and address the issue of crime and deviance in the Caribbean.

Written by:Student Liam Rice

Caribbean political leaders such as Sir Grantley Adams (Barbados), Sir Norman Manley (Jamaica) and Dr. Eric Williams (Trinidad) believed in the principle of enhancing Human Capital. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of the Human Capital Theory in its application to Caribbean societies. As the world industrializes, the desire to optimise efficiency and maximize profits is paramount to societal development. Many have written on this, proposing numerous theories on how the worker may perform at his/her best using ethical methods or motivation. One such ideology is the Human Capital Theory. Introduced by Adam Smith, the ‘father of economics’, this theory seeks to create a link between education of the worker and enhanced productivity. This school of thought will be discussed in this essay, along with its merits and demerits in applying it to Caribbean society. Human capital theorists believe that the economic success of a business is directly proportional to the education of its labour force. It is a functionalist idea that reveres the meritocratic system of education. It advocates the moving away from manual labour and seeks to develop a specialized population whose expertise will facilitate capital accumulation and ultimately, the progress of the country as a whole. The theory has been embraced by some of our most instrumental leaders, such as Sir Grantley Adams of Barbados and Dr Eric Williams of Trinidad. As a result, these individuals placed a great emphasis on the education of the masses and constructed many schools on the islands. Perhaps the most evident and successful sign of these efforts was the birth of the University of the West Indies, which has greatly aided in the creation of a Caribbean intelligentsia. However, recently, the rapid acceptance of this model has come into question. To what extent has it been successful in the Caribbean? Firstly, the Human Capital Theory was initially beneficial because it helped to improve the socio-economic position of the socially marginal in the region. Racism and classism still permeated social institutions such as the school and the church long after emancipation. Blacks, although now free, were still discriminated against in society: they were often unemployed, by virtue of their lack of education and the white, oppressive employees. However, with independence, whites were now legally prohibited to withhold or provide employment based on colour or class, but rather base it on whether the prospective employee fulfilled the educational requirements of the job. Thus, the explosion in schooling institutions in the region allowed blacks and other socially marginal groups to begin the process of social mobility through educational and economic empowerment. Moreover, strength of the application of the HCT to Caribbean society is that it has provoked change in familial structures, which has aided economic development on the islands. Prior to independence, poor blacks were taught to identify large families with economic stability. In their view, many children would equate to many people working, which would bring in a lot of money for the family. However, this only created a type of reserve army of labour and the perpetuation of poverty. The added importance of education drastically changed this view and encouraged the schooling of women. Thus, after a while, women moved from mainly being housewives to being gainfully employed. Their perceptions of family life changed and careers became increasingly important in comparison to traditional roles such as - over child rearing. As a result, Caribbean women are now having children and marrying at a later age. This has significantly improved the economic performance of many countries, for example, Barbados. In 2009, the GDP per capita in that country was US $18,500, whilst in 1950 it was US $6755.02! (CIA Factbook) This almost 300% increase can be attributed to the added contribution of women to the workforce. However, one shortfall of the theory is that often governments spend a disproportionate amount on money on education, neglecting other areas of society that need urgent attention. This has been the case in the Caribbean, and the consequences of this have been more pronounced in some countries than others. In Trinidad for example, in 2001, 16.7% of total government expenditure was spent on education. (UNESCO) However, in the same year, only 6.4% was spent on health. (WHO). This discrepancy has had serious implications for the country. In 2001, the crude death rate increased from 7.2 per 1,000 in 1999 to 7.8 per 1,000. (WHO) As new epidemics beleaguer the country, such as HIV/AIDS and non-communicable diseases like diabetes and obesity, it is imperative that more money is invested in the development of the healthcare system in the country to combat these ills. Education alone will not solve them. In addition, perhaps the biggest flaw in the application of the Human Capital Theory to the region is that it undermines the racial, classist and sexist attitudes that inhabit the Caribbean job market. The theory assumes that society is fair and like most functionalist ideas, places much store by the power of education. It proposes that once one is educated to a certain level, acquiring a job is automatic. However, whilst this may be true in metropolitan societies, the region’s history of colonialism does not allow for this easy transition. Many Caribbean businesses continue to be owned by the while middle and upper class and lower-class blacks and females, with and without education, continue to be grossly underemployed. For instance, in Jamaica, in 2008, out of the 134,600 of those without a job, 81,800 were female. (Statistical Institute of Jamaica) This is despite the fact that the female to male ratio of educational enrolment is 6.3:3.3. This shows the social injustices that are still engrained into Caribbean society today despite the many efforts of our forefathers to promote an egalitarian society. Thus, whilst education is an essential tool in the development of human capital, other key factors must be in place to truly realise the potential of the labour force. Thus, in closing, we as a region must look further than just educating the labour force in order to enhance productivity. We are an anomalous case in the world, as our colonial history and lack of natural resources present to us our own unique problems. Important issues such as racism, sexism and improper government spending must be dealt with in conjunction with the education of the masses. Furthermore, we must be cognizant of the ever looming threat of ‘over-educating’ our population, as we simply do not have enough jobs in the region to support a fully skilled Caribbean. Such a scenario would lead to a socially and economically unstable society, with increases in brain drain and significant drops in wages due to augmented competition for jobs. Thus, there must be added importance to untapped industries such as agriculture, rather than focusing mainly on professional or service based jobs. Furthermore, there is not only need for formal education, but also the education of the society as a whole to be less judgemental and prejudiced. Such solutions, as mentioned above, will be instrumental in the drive towards economic prosperity in the region. If they are implemented, the dreams of our forefathers such as Adams, Manley and Williams stand a high chance of being realised.

Can the Conventional Theories of Crime and Deviance Fully Explain the Situation in the Caribbean?

Crime is an act in violation of the criminal law and subject to official punishment, meaning formal negative sanction by the state. Deviance is an act which strays away from the norms and expectation of a particular society. It is a term that is relative TO TIME, PLACE and PERSON and it can only be defined in relation to a particular standard. Therefore deviance is culturally and socially determined. Many Caribbean theorists in attempting to explain crime and deviance in a Caribbean context use European theorists such as Walter Millar and Albert Cohen. These Caribbean theorists believe their research is suitable in describing reasons for Caribbean crime.

On the other hand several theorists argue that there is a need for a Caribbean criminology. Theorists like Ken Pryce state that criminology is needed that is based of the distinctiveness of the region, attempts to illuminates the causation of crime and deviances within the Caribbean people historical and contemporary experience and that would examine the Caribbean cultural heritage of black working-class styles of protest from slavery to neo-colonialism. The essay will discuss the suitability and ability of European theories to scrutinize crime in a Caribbean society.

Ken Pryce and Figuera state that rape in Trinidad and Tobago is mainly a lower class phenomenon. Violence is prevalent to the experience of the underprivileged and the oppressed. Violence helps these people to reassert their dignity. Lower-class men are exposed to goals and materialism which are usually denied to them but constantly advertised in the media. As a result they feel deprived and frustrated and rape women in an attempt to gain a reputation and personal status. Walter Miller agrees stating that crime can be explained through a distinctive lower class, this lower class has a unique set of norms and values that encourage them to break the law. Within this lower class subculture there are a number of focal concerns such as fate, autonomy, toughness, excitement, smartness and trouble which form the base of the lower class males’ offenses.

Oscar Lewis agrees with his theory, ‘The Culture of Poverty’ stating that the lower-class because of their particular sub-culture is pre-disposed to a number of factors which make crime and inevitability and they transmit this subculture to their children. However it is dangerous to adopt metropolitan cultural concepts wholesale as they are sometimes based on an outdated United States of America and Britain. The conditions in these countries are very different to the conditions in the Caribbean. These models explain crime in a white, mostly homogenous society whereas the Caribbean exists in a mostly plural, heterogeneous one. In conformity with Pryce and Figuera is Hyacinth Ellis, she states that Jamaica’s history has been one of violence, racism, slavery, colonialism and low self esteem. These factors have created a sub culture of violence that applauds the infliction of violent behaviour since violence brings ego, self-esteen and realistic socio-economic gains that the lower-class was previously denied.

In agreement are Albert Cohen and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin who come closer to outlining a view of delinquency which is applicable to the Caribbean. Cohen states that lower class individuals adhere to mainstream goals but due largely to education failure and the resulting dead-end jobs; they have little opportunity to achieve these goals. As a result working class boys suffer from status frustration; they are discouraged and dissatisfied with their low status in society. Consequently they reject the success goals of mainstream culture and replace it with an alternative set of norms and values through which they commit crime. Cloward and Ohlin concur stating that deviant behaviour results from an increased access to illegitimate opportunity structures to achieve success.

These theories, according to Pryce are more suitable because they discussed the experience of delinquent subcultures in terms of the class situation with reference to their restrictive life chances and the frustrations upon their inability to measure up to their aspirations. However they still have limited theoretical values in the Caribbean because the style of protest of lower-class youth cannot be adequately explained without taking into account the Caribbean experience of racism and neo-colonialism. Maureen Cain disagrees with Pryce and Figuera, she states that high levels of crime are also found in Europe where there is no colonization. She states that crime and deviance is cross-cultural and trans-national.

The conventional viewpoint is that developing countries is a product of social change and modernization but according to Pryce third world countries face crime because it is a symptom of a particular type of development based on exploitation and development of underdevelopment. Also profits from the first world tend to be circulated among the upper and middle classes leaving the lower-class no other choice but to turn toward pimping, hustling prostitution and violence because of unemployment. He states that a Caribbean criminology that examines the reality of crime in the context of the Caribbean history of capitalist oppression and exploitation is best.

On the contrary Carl Stone argues that pseudo-historical explanations do not allow us to understand the new patterns of social behaviour. Poverty cannot explain violence as it existed before slavery but crime took more than one century after slavery to manifest itself in such proportions. According to Carl Stone modernization and social change Is the cause of violent criminal behaviour.

In conclusion, the Caribbean may very well be better equipped with criminology of its own. It is a unique region and should not be explained by theories based on evidence that was not seen to have existed in the Caribbean district.

Urbanization is a process that occurs when people migrate from rural areas to urban areas in search of better opportunities, living conditions, and quality of life. It has become a widespread phenomenon in many countries, including the Caribbean. The statement "urbanization inevitably increases environmental health issues" is a contentious one that has sparked much debate. This essay will critically discuss this statement concerning Barbados, a small island developing state in the Caribbean, and analyze how theoretical frameworks such as modernization theory, world systems theory, theory of social change, and dependency theory apply to the issue of urbanization and environmental health.

Barbados has experienced rapid urbanization since the 1950s, with urban areas now accounting for approximately 80% of the population (Barbados Statistical Service, 2022). While urbanization has brought about economic development, improved infrastructure, and better access to education and healthcare, it has also resulted in various environmental health issues. The consequences of these issues are significant, including respiratory and other illnesses, environmental degradation, and reduced quality of life.

Modernization theory asserts that as societies become more developed, they will experience a shift from traditional to modern values and institutions, leading to improvements in living standards, including environmental health. According to this theory, urbanization is a positive force that drives economic growth, social change, and modernization. In the case of Barbados, urbanization has resulted in improved living standards for some, particularly those who have benefitted from the tourism and financial services sectors. However, the benefits have not been evenly distributed, with many low-income urban dwellers experiencing inadequate housing, poor sanitation, and other environmental health issues.

World systems theory posits that global economic systems create hierarchies of wealth and power, with core countries exploiting peripheral countries for their resources and labour. Barbados has historically been a periphery country, with the tourism and financial services sectors serving as the primary sources of economic growth. The influx of tourists and the rapid development of these sectors have resulted in significant environmental health issues, including air and water pollution, which disproportionately affect the residents of urban areas.

Dependency theory suggests that peripheral countries like Barbados are trapped in a cycle of underdevelopment due to their dependence on core countries for capital and technology. This dependence makes it difficult for peripheral countries to implement policies that protect the environment and public health. In the case of Barbados, the tourism and financial services sectors have been major sources of economic growth, but they have also contributed to environmental degradation and public health issues, particularly in urban areas.

Theories of social change emphasize the role of social movements in driving change. In Barbados, numerous social movements have advocated for environmental justice and sustainable development, particularly in urban areas. Some of these include the Barbados Renewable Energy Association, which advocates for renewable energy sources, the Future Centre Trust, which promotes sustainable lifestyles and practices, and the Caribbean Youth Environment Network, which promotes environmental education and youth empowerment in the Caribbean region. These movements have been instrumental in pushing for policy changes and raising awareness about environmental health issues and the impact of urbanization on the island and region by extension.

In conclusion, the relationship between urbanization and environmental health in Barbados is complex and cannot be reduced to a simple causal relationship. While urbanization has brought about some improvements in living standards, it has also resulted in significant environmental health issues, particularly in low-income urban areas. The theoretical frameworks of modernization theory, world systems theory, dependency theory, and theories of social change can all help to explain different aspects of this relationship. However, a comprehensive understanding of the issue requires a nuanced analysis of the political, social, and economic contexts in which urbanization and environmental health interact. Policymakers, stakeholders, and citizens must work together to implement sustainable development policies and practices that prioritize

To what extent  can it be argued  that Sir Arthur Lewis policy of  ‘Industrialisation by Invitation’ aided  in the development of the B.W.I
By Jennine Small.

       According to  Nassur Mustapha development  is defined as, ‘the progressive process of human, cultural, political, economic and social change, which shapes people’s lives.’ The southern countries particularly the Caribbean have been classified as developing countries, which are still somewhat dependent on the metropolis which once colonized them.   Sir Arthur Lewis in the immediate post- World War II period  advocated industrialization of the British West Indies, he adopted a policy  called ‘ Industrialisation by Invitation.’  He felt that this was a step needed to be taken for the British West Indies to develop.  Sir Arthur Lewis policy aided in the development of the B.W.I but the policy itself also hindered development as well as left out major aspects of development.
           The Industrial Revolution was one of those historical events which drastically changed societies all over the world.  Despite the revolution having its roots in Europe , particularly Britain it then spread to  places like the U.S.A  and later the Caribbean.  Industrialization became the  mechanism  used  for a society to make the transition  from a traditional, labour intensive economy based on agriculture (agrarian)  to a more capital- intensive economy based on manufacturing by machines , specialized labour  and Industrial factories. Sir Arthur Lewis recognized the importance of Industrialisation but realized that the British West Indies could not do it on their own, they would need financial aid, in the form of investments which could stimulate Industrialisation.
         After Lewis studied the system known as Operation Bootstrap (policy of deliberately inviting  foreign direct investors) in Puerto Rico, he set out  to adopt and implement similar in the British West Indies. The economies of the British Caribbean  were mainly agricultural  and there was a need to stimulate industrial growth  and trade in manufactured  goods, to diversify the  economic base, since these economies were mainly monocrop economies. This term not only refers to the dependence on sugar and bananas, it also characterizes the  dependence  on tourism or the oil industry. Lewis therefore proposed the strategy to invite foreign investment as a way to stimulate growth, not only in industry but also agriculture, and therefore to reduce the dependency on the export sector. He reasoned that the British West Indies  had a great abundance of unskilled labour in agriculture and amongst the unemployed. These countries did not have  much capital. Thus multinational corporations (MNCs) with  millions of dollars at their disposal were to be invited to the British West Indies where they could earn huge profits  by employing cheap surplus  labour from agriculture. They would also benefit from tax holidays for the first five or ten years of their operations, and other concessions such as subsidies. In other words incentives would be offered to encourage these corporations to invest .
              Caribbean governments  popularly adopted this policy in the 1960s. Several foreign based companies that are established today in the Caribbean are the result of  Sir Lewis’ policy. This is most apparent in the tourist industry  many foreigners have invested in hotels which  employ the  majority of people.In Antigua for example, 50% of the population is employed in the tourism industry. In addition to this, infrastructure such as roads and transportation has been developed by governments to complement these  businesses.  Foreign investors have introduced the latest technologies  and influenced the improvement of  public services.
           On the contrary, the policy is very much economically based , its aim is for countries to achieve economic growth. However development also includes other aspects, there is no indication on how foreign investers may  positively impact the quality of life , welfare or education. Therefore this policy cannot be seen as aiding development in the British West Indies as a whole , as the policy was based primarily on the stimulation of economic growth. In addition, most of the money earned by these investors have been repatriated to their home  countries  thus  money is not invested in the economy, this is a grave issue with serious implications for the tourism industry.
       The policy eventually failed in the British West Indies, mainly because the Caribbean governments invited the MNCs but did not control them. When the initial period of the tax-free holidays were up they 'closed up shop' and moved on. They were mainly capital-intensive industries, virtually no provisions were  made for  training citizens to organize and run similar plants, such as the assembly of motor vehicles and small appliances. Hence no sustainable development.
        Neo-marxists  who came up with the dependency theory, also initially developed their theory in Latin America.  Andre Gunder Frank and Samir Amin were the two theorists associated with this school of thought .  Both argued that the third world countries are classified as the Peripheries and the Western/ Industrialised  capitalist countries are the core. The former being largely dependent on the latter. The development of the core countries  caused the underdevelopment  of the periphery since economic surplus  was transferred from the latter to the former for expansion purposes. These sociologists recommended that the peripheries need to break the link between them and the core in order to be self- sufficient and independent. Therefore the MNCs can be seen as detrimental  according to this perspective dependence is an undesired state and situation . It only causes, injustice, unfairness and exploitation. Following from the dependency theory, we can assert that foreign companies therefore would not be aiding development but hindering it for their metropolis benefit. They would encourage the mindset of preference for foreign goods thus maintaining dependence.
               It can be seen that the Industrialisation by Invitiation policy is indeed a controversial one when considering whether it has aided development in the Caribbean. There is no doubt that MNCs  are an important means to economic development. However in order for a country to develop, the country must have control of its own businesses and resources, move away from  traditional economic models that make them dependent on foreigners and also perpetuate the legacy of  colonialism in how the Caribbean economy is structured.